Humanism and History

PART ONE

I

“History is bunk.”

“History is one damn thing after another.”

“History is lies told by the winners.”

Are all of these true? In a sense, yes they are, but each is also false at the same time. How can this paradox be of interest to a humanist? Read on and see.

History could be “bunk”, as in “rubbish” or “garbage”, meaning that the ideas presented do not make sense, are factually incorrect, or are not relevant to the present situation. However, this view may simply reflect the reader’s lack of understanding of what is perhaps a complicated set of ideas. Humanists seek to penetrate to the truth from accurate evidence and analysis.

When the past is portrayed as merely a list of battles or leaders or divine interventions, it could be “one damn thing after another”. As such, it would be boring. At the same time, seeing the sequence of events and how dynamic individuals affected the course of those events can shed light on what is happening now or even what may take place in the future. Humanists understand that life is a combination of circumstances and individual actions where choices matter.

“Lies told by the winners” can possibly reflect reality; for example, the victorious side in a war might offer a very different view from that of the defeated side. But it might also reflect the refusal of the losing side to acknowledge its mistakes. Humanists know that reality may be painful but it is better than propaganda.

Does history matter? To a humanist it certainly does. In his novel 1984 George Orwell vividly described a world where the governing power controlled what was taught about the past in order to manipulate the citizens. “Those who control the present also control the past. Those who control the past, also control the future.” Humanists stress the importance of thorough research and honest reporting, two qualities that would be repugnant to Orwell’s mystery character, “Big Brother”.

Definitions of “history” can vary quite a bit. At first, it may be thought of simply as everything that has happened in the past; but that is obviously too much to grasp. History may be what people remember; but that can vary a great deal from one individual to another.

In this essay, “history” will refer to the writing done by reputable researchers who use various documents to describe, analyze, and explain the most important and interesting events of the past and the people who participated in them. These writers also consider oral stories, visual records, and archeological investigations in order to form a more complete and accurate image of the times before their own.

II

Using this definition, all history is revisionist. Each time a historian writes another article or book, he or she is making suggestions, criticisms, or corrections about how previous ideas were put forward. This revision may be based upon the discovery of new materials such as unlocked government archives, recently uncovered artifacts, or scientific findings using DNA, etc. The revision might also be based on a reinterpretation of already existing information.

Every historian has a bias (point of view). Good historians are aware of that bias and make it readily apparent so that the reader can keep it in mind while considering the views that are presented. At the same time, good historians attempt to minimize their prejudices in order to offer as objective an analysis as possible.

Sometimes historians write in order to clarify current misconceptions that are based on ignorance of or an inaccurate understanding of past events. This is important because, as philosopher George Santayana stated:”Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”. He meant that ignoring previous mistakes and catastrophic events leaves both societies and individuals vulnerable to experiencing similar negative outcomes again. In this way, he highlighted the importance of historical awareness. While new situations are never exactly the same as old ones, there is often enough similarity as to be instructive.

We should look to history for understanding and guidance; but we must do so cautiously.

The old days have helped to form our values and our aspirations. They also affect what we love and admire as well as what we hate and fear.

The historian may well be related to the non-historian as the trained guide is to the ignorant hiker. It is true that historians cannot perform experiments the way that scientists do. That makes history somewhat less rigorous. However, good historians bring serious methods and thoughtful analysis to their research. And, like scientists, if they do not confer their conclusions in a clear and understandable manner, propagandists and “influencers” will rush in to fill the gap with lies and misinformation.

III

History is only as good as the questions that are asked. The process of researching and writing about new questions is what makes history change and develop. At the same time, getting the facts and keeping them straight is important. What happened and in what order matters. Just because something happened first does not automatically mean that it is responsible for what happened next. Correlation suggests but does not prove causation. The way a historian approaches a problem is similar to that of a journalist, detective, or doctor.

Ideologies, be they religious or political, can be based on a selective reading of history, or, even worse, an acceptance of myths as history. Jews, Christians, and Muslims sometimes display those qualities. Religious fundamentalists and other “true believers” often base their actions today on those myths in hopes of reaching or implementing their desired future.

A perceived history of oppression and suffering keeps followers angry and motivated. It also attracts new recruits. For example, fanatical Muslims can justify acts of terrorism based on their reading of the stories in the Qur’an. The Chinese Communist Party conveys only one version of history with China always portrayed as the eternal victim and so the CCP can do no wrong. Inconvenient episodes are carefully omitted. China restricts the study of such topics as the Cultural Revolution and the Tiananmen protest.

IV

 It is important to distinguish between “myth”, “legend” and “history”. In this essay, myth refers to stories whose truth cannot be proven. Legends are stories that may have some factual basis in origin but have been embellished over time to the point that many aspects are not likely true. History, as stated before, is the product of careful research based on reliable sources in an attempt to describe and explain accurately what happened in the past.

Creation stories are good examples of myths.

Ancient Egyptians wrote about a supreme god who made the earth appear from water.  The Hebrew story of the seven days of creation is well known. The Japanese believed that divine siblings stirred the ocean with a spear to form islands. Some Canadian Indigenous groups relate the tale of mud on a turtle’s back. Of course, none of these stories are true. They have been disproven by science. Nevertheless, they display imagination and often wisdom associated with respect for the natural world.

Here are some legends. George Washington, the first president of the USA, certainly was a real person. The story of his confessing to chopping down a cherry tree may be an accretion that adds a moral lesson. Shaka, the great Zulu leader famous in South Africa, has a well deserved reputation, but some stories attached to him are of doubtful quality. Chinese sage Kongfuzi (Confucius), who certainly existed, is known mainly from notes kept by his students. Stories about him cannot be verified conclusively.

Does it matter? Definitely. Humanists seek truth from evidence and deny the existence of miracles or divine intervention. However, millions of people around the world choose to mould their behaviour on myths and legends rather than facts. To the extent that the stories promote honesty, environmental awareness, and compassion, there is no problem. But some of the stories encourage ethnocentrism, tribalism, or even violence.

Oral history existed long before the written word. All over the world people remembered great leaders, significant events, and family trees. Historians today take these stories into account in their investigations (as do courts of law sometimes). It is worth noting that oral histories are just as reliable and unreliable as written records and need to be treated similarly. Just because a story has been passed down through generations does not mean that it should be given credence automatically.

PART TWO

HISTORIOGRAPHY

Historiography examines howhistory has been written and interpreted over time, rather than merely relating the past events themselves. For those interested in exploring the philosophy and methodology of historians, as well as their debates, here are some suggestions about what to read. (All of them have bibliographies for those who wish to make further investigations.)

USES AND ABUSES OF HISTORY

Margaret MacMillan (2008)

Collected here is a series of lectures by distinguished Canadian historian MacMillan about the benefits and pitfalls of history. Her writing is clear and approachable by the general public, eloquent but easily readable. While not referring to herself specifically as a humanist, she makes a plea for doing history in ways that a humanist would approve of. This brief book is not to be missed. It is one of the best.

The chapter titles indicate the scope of the lectures:

• The History Craze
• History for Comfort
• Who owns the Past?
• History and Identity
• History and Nationalism
• Presenting History’s Bill
• History Wars
• History as Guide and Friend

The text presents many examples of conflicts based on different readings of history such as; Jewish Israelis and Muslim Palestinians; Serbs, Croats, and Albanians in the former Yugoslavia; Indians and Pakistanis, etc. Pertinent Canadian examples are included.

In her wide ranging and perceptive lectures MacMillan makes numerous key points, e.g.:

• History should be used, enjoyed, but handled with care.
• History can be helpful; it can also be dangerous.
• People are complicated. We can still have heroes despite their flaws.
• Memory is a delicate subject. Repressed memories often prove to be untrue..
• Is it healthy for societies to apologize for things that were done in previous centuries and under different sets of belief? If we look back too much and tinker with history through apologies, the danger is that we do not pay enough attention to the difficult problems of the present.
• Deciding which version of the past we want is often politically volatile.
• A great past can offer a promise, but it can also impose a terrible burden.
• History can help us make sense of a complicated world but overly simplistic explanations must be avoided.

HISTORY: A BEGINNER’S GUIDE

David Nash (2016)

The author asks why, aside from furnishing information and inspiration for novels and films, we bother to study history. What lies beneath our unceasing efforts to uncover the past? He also sets out to describe what is involved in the theory and practice of the subject.

Without using the term “humanism”, Nash underlines the importance using the approach favoured by humanists, i.e. seeking diligently for explanations that are credible, likely, and verifiable. Corroborating evidence is required and experts are consulted. Furthermore, the evidence is arranged in a scale from major to minor factors.  The historian pursues a hierarchy of causes and places them in order of likely impact. This is a method that is as scientific as can be for the historian.

Nash derides conspiracy theories as explanations for those who, with little or no evidence, assume that governments and businesses intentionally mislead the public. These indivisuals often accept simple answers to complicated questions.  Followers of conspiracy theories can start with a reasonable idea but make much out of inference, coincidence, and hearsay. History, by contrast, is not at all the same, since it tries to produce a factual account of events and also an explanation.

Nash makes several key assertions including the following:

• Historians need to be aware of ideas from other disciplines such as geography, psychology, economics, anthropology, etc., in order to understand human behaviour in the past;
• Sometimes apparent traditions are not really so old. One responsibility of the historian is to uncover the truth about tradition while remaining the custodian of genuine heritage;
• History can be written to encourage action today as well as being a reminder of past society;
• While history is not an infallible guide to the future, it can give us illustrations to consider when we have to adapt to a changing world.

Throughout the book informative and vastly different case studies provide excellent examples of historians at work. Examples include:

• The assassination of US president John F. Kennedy
• The end of the Atlantic slave trade
• Witchcraft trials
• Hitler’s diaries
• Love and marriage
• British pubs

This academic researcher provides an absorbing insight into the historian’s mindset and is a fine resource for anyone curious about what historians do and why it matters.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF HISTORY

GREAT HISTORIANS AND THE EPIC QUEST TO EXPLAIN THE PAST

Colin Wells (2008)

Wells takes on the enormous task of surveying the writing of history over an enormous span of time from ancient Greece to modern times. Epic in scope, this is a book only for those who are enthused about the developments in and debates over purpose, method, and style. It is intellectual history, i.e. a study of the development and transformation of ideas.

Since the ancient Greek writers Herodotus and Thucydides (both 5th century BCE, around the time of Socrates and Plato), good historians have tried to explain the past, not just record it, as had largely been the case before them.

Herodotus emphasized imagination in an attempt to understand historical events and figures. He built on epic poetry but said little about the gods in contrast to the great poet, Homer, the supposed author of The Iliad and The Odyssey.  He took a broad view of the world around him and knew that a historian needs to be aware of geography. His investigations in some ways were not unlike the research done by cultural anthropologists today.

Thucydides focused on the rational explanation of politics and war because he thought they were the most relevant topics, and that similar situations were very likely to occur in the future. Thus, history could be a guide.  His approach was more scientific and reflected the philosophic inquires of his time. There is no divine intervention in Thucydides’ analysis. He is a cold, clinical observer, similar to a modern war correspondent not intent on propaganda.

Herodotus was the story teller; Thucydides the scientist. The contrast or combination of the respective approaches of these two pioneers of historical writing set stage for centuries of debate about why and how to “do” history.

Nearly a thousand years later Eusebius (early 4^th century) took history a step backward, turning from explanation to dogma as Christianity triumphed in the Roman Empire and religious orthodoxy came to dominate intellectual life.

Another thousand years afterwards, Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) essentially pioneered the idea of applying critical thinking to the study of history, despite being an observant Muslim.  He was influenced by ancient Greek philosophy which the Arabs had rediscovered.  He argued that the inner meaning of history involves attempts to get at the truth and a deep knowledge of the how and why of the events. Around the same time, the Italian poet Petrarch, though not a historian, helped to give birth to humanism and enlarge history’s scope beyond the biographies of saints by reviving passion for the pre-Christian world of the Greeks and Romans.

Many more historians’ ideas are clearly and wittily discussed by Wells. From his survey we can conclude that it is important for professional historians to write for other scholars. But it is equally important to bring forward a humanistic view and to write for a general public that has the literacy skills and motivation to explore their ideas. Wells’ exposition also shows to potential students of history at university some of the challenging tasks that they would encounter.

The major criticism that one might make of Wells is his failure to take into account the great tradition of history writing in China. For that, see other books among these suggested readings.

HISTORIOGRAPHY: AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE

Eileen Ka-May Cheng (2012)

Professor Cheng aims to examine the fugitive nature of history. She strives to provide a framework for analyzing historiography in hopes that enthusiastic readers can then apply it to their own explorations. The book is aimed at the student who wishes to become a professional historian or anyone else keen to undertake a critical look at writing about the past. It is not for the casual reader but for someone who wants to go beyond the presentation by Wells in the previous review.

Cheng describes the impact of the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment on European historians. She outlines how they moved from Christian dogmas and the idea that history is simply the story of the unfolding of “God’s will” to a new humanistic and secular perspective.

Among other topics, Cheng challenges post-modernist claims that history is just verbal fiction with no connection to reality except as an expression of power by those in control. And she notes a particularly important development in modern professional historical scholarship, i.e.  “Global History” with its emphasis on transnational connections between historical events and developments

To her credit, Cheng references Samuel Johnson, a late 19^th century African historian, who made a great effort to record the oral traditions of his Yoruba people in Nigeria and integrate them into modern historical studies

Equally important, she notes the early 20^th century Chinese historian Hu Shi. He contended that traditional Chinese historians were at least proto-scientific in their dedication to seeking out and carefully analyzing the multitude of documents preserved in the country with the longest history of thorough record keeping in the world.

THE ANCIENT HISTORIANS

Michael Grant (1970)

Classical scholar Grant surveys the surviving writings of fourteen historians of ancient Greece and Rome. He provides biographical detail and analyzes the method and style of each author. He notes their biases and intentions. He contends that despite the relative lack of source materials available, these writers generally did good research and tried to write as objectively as possible and in a manner that the reader would find stimulating. They often attempted to offer moral guidance that would benefit following generations.

In admitting that they did not know every answer, these ancient men of letters sometimes included the gods as playing a role in human affairs, but did so far less than earlier poets such as Hesiod and Homer. These historians also frequently referenced chance or destiny to account for events. Grant contends, however, that the use of all such terms is in fact a product of modesty, perhaps even a humble agnosticism, about matters that they were less than confident to explain otherwise.

In the introductory chapter Grant outlines how history written in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Palestine, etc., usually consisted of records of rulers, battles, and divine interventions. There was little economic history both because of the lack of records and analytic tools and a sense that it was the gods and great men who made history. It was the Greeks who introduced the notion of cause and effect based on various circumstances.

This study of ancient historians would be of interest perhaps only to those with some prior knowledge of the periods described and a passion to learn more.

PART THREE

I

GENERAL AND THEMATIC STUDIES

THE COLUMBIA HISTORY OF THE WORLD

John A. Garraty and Peter Gay (1972)

This collection of essays by a group of distinguished professors from Columbia University in New York City surveys global history by having each specialist write about his or her area of expertise. The various reports are then arranged chronologically by the editors to form a linked whole. There is more about the West than other areas, but no region is omitted. At over one thousand pages, readers are not likely to go from start to finish but can select whatever topics interest them.

THE PENGUIN HISTORY OF THE WORLD

J.M. Roberts and O.A. Westad (sixth edition 2013)

Roberts’ initial publication was produced in 1976. Norwegian historian Westad has brought this massive survey more up to date in the sixth edition. Westad employs a broad perspective both as a scholar from outside the typical British or American stream and as a specialist in East Asia. This is a truly global history told from a single very knowledgeable scholar’s point of view that touches upon every continent. Westad successfully links together the stories of various regions and demonstrates how no major event takes place in isolation or is without broad impact.

Only the most enthusiastic students of history might attempt immersing themselves from cover to cover. Most who pick up this book would likely use the Table of Contents or Index to select topics of interest. Westad’ survey  can provide vital facts that a humanist can use is discussing the background to world affairs today.

GUNS, GERMS, AND STEEL: THE FATES OF HUMAN SOCITIES

Jared Diamond (1997; new afterword 2017)

Professor Diamond reminds us that “all history is old geography” as he describes the origins of religion, writing, agriculture, and various technologies. He explains that many global inequalities are largely due to the differences in soil, climate, plant and animal life, transportation routes, etc. that existed between Eurasia and the rest of the planet. In so doing, he contradicts those who attribute the gulf in wealth and physical achievements to racial superiority and inferiority.  Though academically based, the book is aimed at the general public and can be read by any curious and enthusiastic individual. This is a detailed study that all humanists should keep in mind when discussing outmoded theories of human inequality.

A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 6 GLASSES

Tom Standage (2005)

 Standage, a journalist, offers an informed and exhilarating ride through world history by focusing on the importance of six beverages. The production, consumption, and trade in these drinks (beer, wine, spirits, coffee, tea, and soda pop), in addition to creating social conventions, have had a great impact, often leading to economic competition and even war. This book is shorter than some academic presentations and is a good starter for those not eager to dive in too deep at first.

He could also have investigated salt, pepper, cloves, and potatoes as driving forces. The reader may choose to look into those elsewhere.

CIVILIZATION: THE WEST AND THE REST

Niall Ferguson (2011)

Good history depends on starting with good questions. Ferguson begins by asking why after about 1500 the countries of Western Europe came to dominate much of the world, including areas with great populations and, in some ways, more sophisticated societies. He then offers a grand narrative of the development of certain institutions and their associated ideas and behaviours to explain this success. He summarizes them as:

• Competition
• Science
• Property Rights
• Medicine
• The Consumer Society
• The Work Ethic

This prominent Scottish historian expands his presentation of each factor persuasively in considerable detail. He marshals great amounts of evidence and delivers a cogent analysis. He might be criticized, however, for not saying more about the West’s military power and it willingness to use violence. Of course, all great conquests have used force. Think of the Mongols and the Turks before the rise of Europe.

This book provides an in depth look at how much of today’s international reality came about. Whether the reader would agree with this conservative historian or not, his views need to be looked at carefully.

THE SILK ROADS: A NEW HISTORY OF THE WORLD

Peter Frankopan (2015)

Frankopan begins by noting that world history written by Western historians has often been overly Eurocentric. He chooses to look at the story from the points of view of others than the winners of recent centuries.  He argues that the great trade routes from the Atlantic to the Pacific across the land mass of Eurasia have not received sufficient attention. This extensive study encourages readers to reflect more on the importance and lasting impact of developments prior to the expansion of European power in the last five hundred years. Frankopan concludes that continuing change across the old Silk Roads will have great impact on the future of the world, and that knowing something about their past will be of value.

A HISTORY OF THE WORLD IN 100 OBJECTS

Neil MacGregor (2010)

British Museum Curator MacGregor has chosen artifacts in an attempt to address a multitude of human experiences. His goal is to present information about whole societies, not just the rich and powerful within them. A series of objects, beautifully photographed, are described and their significance explained.

A particular value of this book is that it demonstrates the importance of using material objects in addition to written records, especially to tell the stories of communities that were pre-literate. It is a great example of how historians need to consult the work of anthropologists in order to expand their understanding of the past.

MacGregor’s presentation is beautifully written. (It is based on a series of television shows). With a truly global perspective, it opens many doors to a broader understanding of the world’s multitude of cultures.

A thoughtful reader will also consider the question of the role of museums in general and the specific question of returning artifacts to their place of origin. They are very controversial issues that should be of concern to humanists.

THE MARVELLOUS CENTURY: ARCHAIC MAN AND THE AWAKENING OF REASON

George Woodcock (1989)

This book by a prolific Canadian writer should be of particular interest to humanists because it deals with the thinkers of a period sometimes referred to as “The Axial Age”, approximately the 6^th century BCE. At this time numerous thinkers, apparently independent of each other, were wrestling with questions about the reality of the cosmos and how to construct a universal morality. Their metaphysical and ethical speculations have had long lasting influence on both religious and secular thought ever since.

This is a probing discussion of ideas and will appeal to those attracted to intellectual history.

THE LESSONS OF HISTORY

Will and Ariel Durant (1968)

Will Durant set out to write about the history of ideas in his 1926 book, The Story of Philosophy. It was aimed at the educated and curious person who would not have the time or inclination to delve into every great thinker. The book was so successful that Durant later embarked on a major project to cover the history of (mainly Western) civilization. He and his wife Ariel completed a multi-volume opus intended for non-academics with a passion for historical knowledge.

Reflecting back on all that they had learned in the process of researching and writing, the Durants penned this final essay, a survey of the human experience, as a summary of the insights to be gained from a lifetime of probing and pondering in the best humanist tradition.

SEX IN HISTORY

Reay Tannahill (1992)

What is as basic as thirst and hunger? Of course, it is the urge for sexual gratification. Tannahill, a non-professional historian, investigates the moral and social consequences of our sex drive across time from the prehistoric era to the AIDS epidemic of the 1980s. She outlines many aspects of how sexuality has influenced individual lives and the whole human story. Not Eurocentric, she surveys attitudes and practices in Europe, China, India, Muslim communities and others.

While this is a serious study, Tannahill, neither feminist or-anti-feminist, writes with insight and wit that make the reading quite enjoyable.  It also provides vital background to current concerns about sex and gender.

WAR: HOW CONFLICT SHAPED US

Margaret MacMillan (2020)

Canadian historian MacMillan emphasizes that organized violence throughout history has formed our thinking about political and social institutions. She uses examples from various periods to cast light on why there is war, how wars are fought, and what its many impacts continue to have on our lives. MacMillan’s approach is thematic rather than chronological as she examines such themes as how warriors are made, changing technologies, and the involvement of civilians. Her broad knowledge of global history and her clear writing style make this study a true achievement that would helpfully inform any discussions by humanists of war and peace today.

II

SPECIFIC STUDIES OF REGIONS AND NATIONS

THE GOLDEN ROAD: HOW ANCIENT INDIA TRANSFORMED THE WORLD

William Dalrymple (2024)

This isa book by a Scottish historian who specializes in India. The book argues that the major business of the world for fourteen centuries went through India. He persuasively argues that this maritime trade route preceded the overland Silk Road connecting China, Turkey and the Mediterranean Sea by several centuries. He relates stories of the flourishing trade even between ancient India and the Roman Empire.  Dalrymple describes how India’s ideas in various spheres including art, philosophy, and mathematics spread throughout Asia and eventually into Europe. Their impact was significant on both continents and beyond.

 Dalrymple brings focus to an area of history that seldom receives enough attention. Learned without being pedantic, it makes for a highly interesting and provocative read.

AN AFRICAN HISTORY OF AFRICA: FROM THE DAWN OF HUMANITY TO INDEPENDENCE

Zeinab Badawi (2024)

For decades the history of Africa, when considered at all, has frequently focused almost exclusively on slavery and imperialism. While these topics are of great importance, Somali-British journalist Badawi expands greatly on this approach. She goes from human origins in East Africa through ancient civilizations and medieval empires. The story is then carried on to periods of conquest and liberation.

Like the Greek Herodotus and the Chinese Ssu-ma Chien who travelled broadly on their own territories, Badawi, in addition to engaging in extensive examination of previous studies, visited more than thirty African countries and interviewed numerous scholars and story-tellers.

Badawi refutes the previous Euro-centric view that, other than ancient Egypt, Africa had no history worthy of note.  At the same time she dismisses the Afro-centrist historians who make exaggerated and unsubstantiated claims about the continent’s inhabitants. The book is ambitious in scope and refreshing in perspective, a humanist’s delight, in large part due to Badawi’s journalistic skill. It is a great place to start investigating an often neglected area of study.

CUBA: AN AMERICAN HISTORY

Ada Ferrer (2021)

It is difficult to write about as controversial a place as Cuba without being crippled by blinding bias, but professor Ferrer does just that. She demonstrates the best qualities of a humanistic exposition in seeking and carefully examining a vast array of material. After exploring the significant influence of the colonial experience, this Cuban-American scholar reveals the deep impact that Cuba and the United States have had on each other. It is a book that can be recommended for specialists or for general readers who would like to have an in-depth look at a country whose experience in some ways parallels that of Cananda.

ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME

Western culture is largely derived from the classical heritage, so being familiar with it provides useful material for informed discussions. There are many warnings and also inspiring stories. Moreover, the rediscovery of aspects of the ancient Mediterranean world was an important element in stimulating the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment, all of which form foundations of humanism.

THE HEMLOCK CUP: SOCRATES, ATHENS AND THE SEARCH FOR THE GOOD LIFE

Bettany Hughes (2010)

Athenian stone mason, soldier, and philosopher Socrates was found guilty of impiety and sentenced to death.  He was given a cup of hemlock, a sedative and poison, so that he could die a relatively painless passing. His trial and last moments in prison are brilliantly and movingly recounted by Plato, one of Socrates’ students, in a book that has come down to us The Apology of Socrates. (The title comes from the Greek apologia, meaning a speech of defense, not a modern apology expressing regret.)

In this biography, distinguished classical scholar and successful popularizer Hughes goes beyond the outline of Socrates’ life and provides a detailed examination of Athens in the 5^th century BCE. She wanted to try to understand Socrates’ quest for the answer to how to live a good life.

This is an outstanding and in-depth study of daring ideas that still underlie much of the best thought and action that a humanist can pursue today.

THE NAKED OLYMPICS: THE TRUE STORY OF THE ANCIENT GAMES

Tony Perrottet (2004)

It is revealing to know that the ancient games were just as noble and corrupt as the modern version. Perrottet, a journalist, presents the Greeks in all their glory, brutality, and vulgarity in a highly readable style. The author puts the games into the context of life in ancient Greece so that there is more to the story than just the competitions themselves. Illustrations from Greek pottery provide images that help in conjuring up visions of athletes straining and sweating. This book is a must for sports fans.

THE GREEK HISTORIES

Mary Lefkowitz and James Romm (2022)

The editors convey a far-reaching history of ancient Greece by providing excellent translations of extracts from the principal historians. The ancient texts are linked with information to fill in the gaps. Helpful notes appear at the bottom of almost every page.

Herodotus and Thucydides founded the writing of history as an art and a science, the former as a curious traveler and the latter like a war correspondent. Xenophon, a student of Socrates and a mercenary soldier, gave firsthand accounts of journeys and battles. Plutarch, writing much later, penned multiple biographies of prominent individuals with an eye to moral instruction. Together they offer fascinating accounts of a world without our technology but with many of the same types of people and situations.

Lefkowitz and Romm have also produced an outstanding edition of Greek plays described in the NEP essay on “Literature”.

A HISTORY OF ROME

Moses Hadas (1956)

Polyglot professor Hadas collected extensive excerpts from ancient researchers writing about their own history. He linked them together with informative commentary, but let the authors speak for themselves as they comment on their world in fine literary form.

SPQR: A HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME

Mary Beard (2015)

Many histories of ancient Rome have been written. This is among the best and could be read with profit by anyone wanting an in-depth look at a civilization that still affects us today. Beard, a distinguished scholar and prolific writer, sets out to challenge some of the stereotypes that are commonly held. She notes that the typical contrast of Greeks as sophisticated artists and the Romans as dull warriors is by no means totally warranted. She shows how the Romans were very different from us today with their slavery, blood sports, and lack of sanitation. Yet they shared many of the same problems that we face now in terms of relations between the sexes, troublesome adolescents, and national security. Always the reliable academic, Beard writes in an engaging style that draws the reader in.

ANCIENT ROME: FROM THE REPUBLIC TO THE EMPIRE

Duncan Hill (2010)

Hill, a writer and editor, surveys the history of Rome from its founding as a village on the Tiber River in what is now west-central Italy to the collapse of its enormous empire some one thousand years later. The book is beautifully illustrated with dozens of maps and hundreds of photographs that help bring to life the culture of this ancient civilization. Not a heavy academic presentation, this is an excellent introduction to a vast topic from the personality of emperors good and bad to the daily life of the various social classes.

EMPERORS OF ROME: THE STORY OF IMPERIAL ROME FROM JULIUS CAESAR TO THE LAST EMPEROR

David Potter (2007)

A professor of Greek and Latin, Potter traces the last five hundred years of Roman history by focusing on the rulers, both the capable and the incompetent. From Julius Caesar on, the Roman Empire was essentially a military dictatorship where the skills of the ruler really mattered, even if he was often far removed from the mass of citizens. Being emperor was a challenging job. Communication was extremely slow by today’s standards, economics were poorly understood or appreciated, and the vast territory was frequently beset by droughts and disease. Add to that was increasing pressure from outside the enormous frontiers. At the same time, the Emperor had to be constantly aware of intrigues and the threat of assassination. Leadership mattered then as it does now.

Today, humanists in democratic countries can have a say in what leaders are chosen. We can learn about our potential choices from the lessons offered by studying the rulers of ancient Rome.

CHINA and JAPAN

China, known to the Chinese as “The Central Country” (Zhong Guo), has long played a major role in world history and is doing so once again in the 21^st century. Not to know China is not to know the distant past or the pressing present.

Japan, known to the Japanese as “The Sun’s Source” (Nihon), while deeply influenced by the power of the much older civilization of China, represents a unique culture that offers much of interest and numerous lessons for Westerners.

When humanists engage in discussion about current issues, they are often confronted with stereotypes about various communities. It is important to be familiar with the historical background to today’s points of confrontation.

Chinese and Japanese are completely different languages from each other. Chinese is monosyllabic and tonal. Japanese has a polysyllabic and pitch form. Both are also completely different from English or other European tongues.

Translating history or literature into English requires great knowledge and skill. To further complicate matters, there are two methods of transliterating Chinese into Roman script. The older one is still used in the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the newer one (pinyin) is used in the Peoples Republic of China. Japanese also has more than one transliteration system.

 In addition, writers of Chinese and Japanese both refer to cultural traditions (Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Shinto, etc.) that may be unfamiliar to Westerners, just as East Asian readers may not understand Greek, Roman, or Christian references in the works of European writers. Good translations with appropriate explanatory notes are required to assist in comprehension and enjoyment of the originals.

Here follows a brief list of books about these two countries. With one exception, they are written by Western writers and historians who are very familiar with East Asia.

SELECTIONS FROM THE RECORDS OF THE HISTORIAN

Szuma Chien (c. 100 BCE; translated by Yang and Yang, 1979)

The first problem with this book is the spelling of the author’s name. Depending on the system of transliteration, it can be Szuma Chien, Ssu-ma Ch’ien, or Sima Qian. Don’t be confused; it’s all the same person.

In Chinese the book title is Shiji (historical records). It is available in various translations, usually called Records of the Grand Historian. It covers the period from antiquity to the writer’s own period during the Han dynasty, roughly contemporary with Julius Caesar in Rome. The full version encompasses several monumental volumes with nearly a half million words in total. That is why it is usually published in excerpts only.

Although written over 2,000 years ago, the author’s erudition and brilliant literary skill make it still worth reading today for those with a passion for Chinese history. Like the ancient Greek author Herodotus, this Chinese scholar gathered documents, travelled widely, and talked to many well informed individuals.

Much of the exposition takes the form of biographies of eminent figures, like the characterizations of Plutarch, and with the same didactic force. Another similarity is to be found with Thucydides’ analysis of the wars of the Greeks. This Chinese history contains reports of speeches and conversations that, while not possible to document, are likely to be reasonably authentic.

It is worth noting that Sima Qian completed his opus even after being castrated for criticizing the Emperor. Such can be the price of speaking truth to power. Think of how many humanist journalists and other authors continue to risk their lives today in the pursuit of fundamental freedoms.

THE CAMBRIDGE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF CHINA

Patricia Buckley Ebrey (1996)

It is a great challenge to attempt to encompass the story of the longest continuous civilization in the world, but this Sinology professor accomplishes it admirably. While more than adequately covering the important political, economic, and military parts of the epic development of China, she also includes valuable information on other topics such as philosophy, art, the role and status of women, etc. The many photographs, sketches, and maps greatly enhance the detailed exposition. This book remains the best single volume history of China available today.

THE DRAGON AND THE FOREIGN DEVILS

CHINA AND THE WORLD, 1100 BC TO THE PRESENT

Harry G. Gelber (2007)

This Australian professor’s overview of Chinese history deals largely with relations between China and other countries. He emphasizes the importance of how outsiders have approached China and how, in return, the Chinese have dealt with them. The first part of the book gives a brief but useful review of earlier times when China was the world leader in almost every activity. The bulk of this large study, however, is devoted to the period after 1500 when China was coming into increasing contact with various European nations. More than half of the book is devoted to the humiliation of China in the 19^th century, followed by the collapse of the imperial system, the failure of the early republic, the triumph of the Communists, and then life under Mao Zedong and his successors.

For humanists keen to understand modern geopolitics where China is a major player, this exposition provides a great deal of evidence to analyze.

THE SHORTEST HISTORY OF JAPAN

Lesley Downer (2024)

Downer is an independent writer who specializes in Japan. She knows her topic well and writes in a clear and informative manner. A procession of remarkable achievements and innovations is portrayed along with colourful characters. This brief history of Japan is perfect for anyone who wants a fine overview of the country without a lot of academic detail.

 “The Shortest History of…” is a series that includes books on countries such as China, India, Italy, etc., as well as on other topics of interest to humanists such as the Universe, Democracy, and Artificial Intelligence.

THE MAKING OF MODERN JAPAN

Marius B. Jansen (2000)

This is a magisterial study of Japan from 1600 to modern times. It begins with the samurai rule of a culturally sophisticated but technologically backward and internationally isolated nation. It proceeds to describe its transformation into a modern state which modernized rapidly and sought international recognition through its own imperialism. Jansen also scrutinizes Japan after World War II where it rose from the ashes into a prosperous and democratic nation. This lengthy book is only appropriate for those eager to learn about Japan in detail.

THE FIRST SAMURAI: THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF THE WARRIOR REBEL TAIRA MASAKADO

Karl Friday (2008)

The soldiers of Japan, known as bushi in their own language, originated in the provincial regions beyond the capital of Heian-kyou (now Kyoto) where they served as local officials and sheriffs. They were, thus, known as samurai, which originally meant “one who serves”. Over time they overcame the effete nobles of the capital and took control of the country for seven centuries. This story is about a particular individual who became a model for later samurai once they were in power. Though written by a fine scholar of Japanese culture, the book is aimed at a general audience rather than an academic one. Professor Friday recounts the facts and the legends of Masakado’s swashbuckling but brutal military actions very effectively. In doing so, he also dispels some of the myths surrounding samurai behaviour.

THE LAST SAMURAI: THE LIFE AND BATTLES OF SAIGO TAKAMORI

Mark Ravina (2004)

The 2003 Hollywood film The Last Samurai (starring Tom Cruise) portrayed with considerable accuracy and but some glaring errors the rebellion of certain samurais against a recently reconstituted Japanese government. The discontented samurais felt that the new rulers were going too far in changing traditional Japan. This was a real event, known as the “Satsuma Rebellion” in English or the Seinan Sensou in Japanese. In the movie, the main Japanese character is named Katsumoto. This fictional character is based closely on a real person, Saigo Takamori.

Saigo had helped to overthrow the previous government of the Tokugawa Shoguns in an effort to modernize Japan so as to resist military and economic pressure from the USA and various European nations. Afterwards, however, when a conscript army was formed, the samurais were abolished as a social class and required to stop wearing swords in public, a civil war broke out. Saigo Takamori led the rebels. The government victory in 1876 and Saigo’s death in battle ended the revolt. The period of samurai dominance was over.

Despite being a rebel, Saigo is still remembered as a patriot who had helped to open up and defend his country. His selfless heroism encouraged the legend of his warrior spirit of courage, loyalty, and self-sacrifice. To this day, he is considered a model to emulate. What is often omitted is that he wanted to conquer Korea, something Japan did in fact do some fifty years later.

Professor Ravina has written a detailed and excellent biography that addresses the turmoil of the period and the conflicting motivations of Saigo. This is an example of how humanists probe issues for information that might not be readily apparent and how they seek to understand complex issues before making judgements or taking action.

EVERYDAY LIFE IN TRADITIONAL JAPAN

Charles J. Dunn (1969)

For about two hundred and fifty years after 1600 CE the government of Japan was under the control of one samurai family, the Tokugawa. A class system with strict hierarchy was imposed from above. At the same time, the government cut the island nation off from almost all contact with the outside world. In this manner, Japan had great stability and a shield from external menaces. It did not fall prey to European invaders as did much of the rest of the world. This raises a fundamental question for humanists of how to balance security with liberty.

Dunn’s exploration does not focus on the political system. It rather emphasizes the circumscribed activities of the citizens under authoritarian rule. It is an excellent example of social history wherein the challenges, pastimes, and pleasures of each social class are described in an engaging manner.