PART ONE
The Enlightenment, also known as “The Age of Reason”, was a European intellectual and cultural movement in the 17th century that emphasized reason over faith and science over superstition. (It is not to be confused with “enlightenment” as the goal of Buddhism.)
Enlightenment philosophers questioned accepted knowledge and spread new ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance throughout Europe and the Americas. The Enlightenment was a major turning point in Western civilization. Many of the ideas that we share today and see as normal were fostered at this time.
It is important to understand how deeply engrained superstition was in Europe, not to mention the rest of the world, before the Enlightenment. Popular superstitions included the following:
- Wounds can be healed by anointing the weapon with which they were inflicted
- A corpse resumes bleeding in the presence of the murderer
- Fairies, elves, hobgoblins, ghosts, and demons lurk everywhere
- A king’s touch can cure disease
- Comets presage disasters
In the 1640s over two hundred “witches” were burned in England alone. Progressive thinkers relying on reason and the growth of science denounced these beliefs and practices. The Enlightenment issued a challenge: “Dare to understand!”
The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas and political ideals such as the legal equality of individuals, constitutional government and the formal separation of church and state. Two central doctrines of the Enlightenment were personal liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the near dictatorship of absolute monarchy and the overwhelming power of religious institutions.
Key Enlightenment ideas included rationalism, empiricism, progressivism, and universalism.
Rationalism is the concept that humans are capable of using their thinking ability (reason) to gain knowledge. This was a significant change in emphasis from the prevailing idea that people need to rely on ancient authors, religious scripture or church authorities for truth.
Empiricism promotes the idea that knowledge comes from experience and looking at the world as it is. It follows from “The Scientific Revolution” that sought understanding based on scrutiny and experimentation. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all presumed answers and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely tradition, intuition, or revelation.
Universalism or cosmopolitanism is the concept that through their powers of reason and observation, people, through our shared humanity, can everywhere make progress over time. It also reflected the Enlightenment thinkers’ view of themselves as actively engaged citizens of the world rather than as provincial and close-minded individuals.
One particularly influential Enlightenment publication was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, it was compiled by a team of over one hundred and fifty contributors. The Encyclopédie helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Its goal was to make up to date and accurate information available to as wide an audience as possible at the time. In a world with few books and long before the Internet this was an enormous endeavour and a great achievement.
In brief, the Enlightenment may be described as “science applied to society”. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing humane values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. It has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. It led to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
PART TWO
Not all the ideas of the Enlightenment were original. For example, the rediscovery of ancient Greek texts and the introduction of Chinese thought into Europe both contributed to the Age of Reason.
Two thousand-five hundred years ago in ancient Greece Socrates stressed the need to define terms clearly in order to have a fruitful discussion of any controversial topic. His student, Plato, insisted upon knowledge of mathematics as a pillar of logical thinking. Plato’s student, Aristotle, emphasized that it was necessary to collect as much evidence as possible before drawing conclusions.
Around the same time in China Kung Fuzi (Confucius) is reported to have said that “Every truth has four corners: as a teacher I give you one corner, and it is for you to find the other three.” And that search was not to be done through prayer or meditation but through observation, deep thinking, and practical experience. In Medieval Europe philosophers had wrestled with big ideas but they were always limited by the shackles of religious faith. Age of Reason philosophers challenged the authority of Church doctrines (both Roman Catholic and Protestant) in part because of the cruelties imposed by various church groups and the bloodshed due to wars of religion. Some examples follow.
The Inquisition was a judicial procedure within the Roman Catholic Church whose aim was to combat ideas, practices and customs considered wrong and dangerous. Violence, torture, and threats of those methods were used by the Inquisition to extract confessions and denunciations from heretics (non-believers, doctrinal non-conformists). The overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances (actions done out of repentance for sin), but those individuals convicted of unrepentant heresy were handed over to the secular courts, which generally resulted in life imprisonment or execution, often by being burned at the stake.
The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence directed against the Huguenots (French Protestants). King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks in all, the massacre expanded outward to the countryside and other urban centres. Thousands were murdered.
The Edict of Nantes was signed in April 1598 by King Henry IV and granted the minority Protestants of France substantial rights in the nation, which was predominantly Roman Catholic. The Edict of Nantes helped to end the Wars of Religion in France, which had been raging for decades. It also ensured that the Protestant minority in France would have a measure of religious and political freedom, and helped to establish France temporally as a more tolerant and pluralistic society. However, the Edict was eventually revoked by King Louis XIV in 1685.
In England the reverse was true, and Roman Catholics were discriminated against and not infrequently persecuted and executed.
Enlightenment philosophers feared the ongoing powers of the Inquisition and the potential of more religious wars after Louis XIV rescinded the toleration of Protestants. They also noted that more fair treatment of Roman Catholics in Britain in the eighteenth century was a positive step that they wanted to see expanded into broader religious toleration.
While Enlightenment philosophers were divided on the question of the existence of “God”, they often shared some skepticism about religion in general. For example, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, almost completely destroyed the city and adjoining areas. The event was widely discussed and expanded arguments about how a supposedly benevolent deity could allow such destruction of innocent lives.
The Enlightenment addressed many issues including the role of government in peoples’ lives. For example, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a nation-state. This concept was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution who described the legislative (Congress), executive (President), and judicial (Supreme Court) branches of government with the intent that one section could not dominate the others, thus helping to preserve democracy and the freedom of the citizens. Along with all this was the separation of Church and State. No single religion would be official or dominant.
One criticism that is often leveled at the Enlightenment is that its spokesmen were active during a period when the Atlantic slave trade was flourishing and women were not considered to be citizens. However, French philosopher Denis Diderot (1713-1784) opposed the conquest of foreign peoples and slavery. Another French philosopher the Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) was an abolitionist and advocated equal rights for women. Although they were not successful in their lifetimes, their efforts contributed to the eventual termination of slavery in France in 1794, the end of the British slave trade in 1807, and the end of slavery in the British Empire in 1838.
It took longer for the emancipation of women. During the Enlightenment Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England’s earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791). Political and legal equality of women had to wait another century or more but the seeds had been planted during the Age of Reason.
Today The New Enlightenment Project celebrates the contributions of the philosophers who paved the way for the reliance on evidence and the application of rationality, along with empathy and compassion, for the improvement of social conditions. We seek to build on their foundations and expand their vision in the modern world.
PART THREE. FURTHER SOURCES
The Enlightenment: Reason, Tolerance, and Humanity
James Schmidt (2008) (audio book)
Professor Schmidt provides a very detailed study of a historical topic that is much more complex than implied in the summary offered in the preceding sections.
Humanly Possible
Sarah Bakewell (2023)
From the publisher:
Humanism is an expansive tradition of thought that places shared humanity, cultural vibrancy, and moral responsibility at the centre of our lives. For centuries, this worldview has inspired people to make their choices by principles of free-thinking, intellectual inquiry, fellow feeling, and optimism. In this sweeping history, Sarah Bakewell, herself a life-long humanist, illuminates the very personal, individual, and…human matter of humanism.”
Bakewell provides a excellent and joyful study of the precursors of Enlightenment thought, the Age of Reason itself, as well as its descendants. It is a pleasure to read.
In the series of books listed below psychology professor Pinker uses humanism and rigorous data collection to state his case that the world has already become a better place than that of our distant ancestors or even more recent predecessors. In an optimistic fashion he further contends that a rational and empathetic approach can continue to find solutions to our current problems in the economy, environment, and global confrontations. His views are supported by extensive research and analysis. Though academic, his writing style is very readable.
The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence has Declined
Steven Pinker (2011)
Pinker argues that violence has declined proportionate to growing world population due to a combination of the steps taken by moral activists along with changes in technology, governance, commerce, and knowledge. This decline could be reversed unless we continue to approach problems with rationality and compassion. We need to constantly examine our social, cultural, and material conditions. Included in this analysis is the view that religion has been a force that at times has provoked war (fundamentalism) and at other times has contributed to the establishment or maintenance of peace. Overall, the “expanding circle” (seeing the unity of humanity) and the “escalator of reason” (increasing the use of rationality rather than blind belief) can further limit violence.
“Discovering earthly ways in which human beings can flourish, including stratagems to overcome the inherent appeal of aggression, should be purpose enough for anyone.” (p. 695)
“For all the tribulations in our lives, for all the troubles that remain in the world, the decline of violence is an accomplishment we can savor, and an impetus to cherish the forces of civilization and enlightenment that made it possible.” (p. 696)
Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress
Steven Pinker (2018)
Psychologist Pinker makes the case for reason, science, humanism and progress. In so doing he demonstrates how religion is not necessary for morality. He also offers his vision of how to live a fulfilling life without expecting a reward or fearing punishment after death. This book is essential reading for humanists wishing to defend their point of view.
Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters
Steven Pinker (2021)
Pinker discusses various forms of reasoning and demonstrates how we often fail to use them well. He also points out the strength of philosophers’ ideas from the past that still hold up today, such as some of the Enlightenment thinkers and their intellectual descendants.
Pinker develops his arguments in favour of rationality as opposed to faith or dogma. Rationality emerges from a community of thinkers who spot each other’s fallacies. But the purpose of rationality is not simply to discredit one’s adversaries. Rather it is to reason our way to the most defensible positions and best actions. “…I believe that the benchmarks of rationality that people so often fail to measure up to should be the goal of education and popular science. Just as citizens should grasp the basics of history, science, and the written word, they should command the intellectual tools of sound reasoning. These include logic, critical thinking, probability, correlation and causation…the [tools] for making rational choices.” (large print edition p. xiii)
“Progress is shorthand for a set of pushbacks and victories wrung out of an unforgiving universe, and is a phenomenon that needs to be explained. The explanation is rationality.” (large print edition p. 429)
“Sound arguments, enforcing a consistency of our practices with our principles and with the goal of human flourishing, cannot improve the world by themselves. But they have guided, and should guide, movements for change…And it will be sound arguments, both to reveal moral blights and discover feasible remedies, that we will need to ensure that moral progress will continue…” (large print edition p. 450)
Websites:
- https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history
- https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#:~:text=The%20Enlightenment%20featured%20a%20range,separation%20of%20church%20and%20state
